Amy Essays - Eating Disorders, Psychiatric Diagnosis,

Amy April 16, 1999 Anorexia Nervosa Anorexia is an eating disorder that usually strikes women between the ages of fifteen and thirty-five. An estimated one thousand females will die each year from anorexia. About eighty percent of females suffer from a sub clinical eating disorder and twenty percent will turn into full-blown anorexics in their lifetime. These are statistics that we know of. Anorexia can be hidden very well by many that suffer from it; therefore there are many cases we do not know of. Anorexia is a disorder in which preoccupation with dieting and thinness leads to excessive weight loss. The individual may not realize that weight loss or restricted eating is a problem. (Internet Mental Health www.mentalhealth.com). Anorexia may not be noticed in the early stages because it often starts as an innocent diet. They often become hyperactive because they exercise frantically in an attempt to burn calories to lose weight. Even though the anorexic is emaciated, she still feels "fat" and wants to hide her "ugly, fat body". A victim does not need to appear underweight or even average to suffer any signs or symptoms of anorexia. Many men and women with eating disorders appear not to be underweight, but this does not mean they suffer any less or are in any less danger. This is why in later and more dangerous stages; family members may not notice the disease because the anorexic usually wears layered and baggy clothes. (www.somethingfishy.com). Presence of a low self-esteem is the most common element in anorexia nervosa. Stress, anxiety and unhappiness can also be leading factors in an anorexic life. Anorexia is their way of dealing and coping with the negative things going on in their life. Most people with eating disorders share certain personality traits, low self-esteem, feelings of helplessness and a fear of becoming fat. People with Anorexia tend to be "too good to be true." They rarely disobey, keep their feelings to themselves, and tend to be perfectionists, good students, and excellent athletes. Some researchers believe that people with anorexia restrict food, particularly carbohydrates, to gain a sense of control in some area of their lives. They have followed the wishes of others in their lives, and they have not learned how to cope with the problems typical of adolescence, growing up, and becoming independent. Controlling their own weight offers two advantages in their eyes; first they can take control of their bodies and secondly, gain approval of others. Eventually they become out of control, becoming dangerously thin. (Microsoft? Encarta 98 Encyclopedia). Victims suffering with Anorexia get a sense of power out of their eating disorder. It is not uncommon to find an anorexic that feels high after periods of starvation. This is due to their feelings of inadequacy. Their poor self image and perception leads to feelings of guilt, they feel like they never do anything right and nothing they ever do is enough. Starvation is an accomplishment in their eyes, something they can do right. They also feel that their life would be better if they could lose weight, or that more people would like them if they lost weight. Anorexics feel a need to control physical and emotional surroundings. In this way eating disorders are a negative coping mechanism, used to control emotions or to keep them suppressed. It feels easier to think about food, food intake, hunger, planning meals or avoiding them, instead of dealing with their emotions. Eating disorders can have a numbing effect, and can give victims a feeling of power over their emotions. (Mind & Body- Signs and symptoms- Something Fishy Website on Eating Disorders) Another major reason why women develop anorexia nervosa is societal pressures. In our society today there is an obsession with being thin in order to be beautiful. The waif look was recently popular causing many people to want to look like the models in magazines. Genetic factors can also play a role in anorexia. Eating disorders appear to run in families. Female relatives are most often affected. Although genetic factors may play a role in the development of anorexia, other influences play a role such as behavioral and environmental. A recent study found that mothers who are overly concerned about their daughter's weight and physical attractiveness

10 Tips for Saying Goodbye to Your College-Bound Child

10 Tips for Saying Goodbye to Your College-Bound Child For many parents, saying goodbye to a daughter or son headed off to college is one of lifes most wrenching moments. As a parent, you want to leave your child on an upbeat note, and you may try to squelch any worry or sadness. Dont fight it- its a natural response. After all, a child whos been a primary focus of your life is about to strike out on their own, and your role will be reduced. There are lots of ways to minimize the tears and roll with the changes, making the parting process easier for college students and their parents. The Year Before Departure Your childs senior year is pressure-filled with worries about college applications and acceptances, concerns with maintaining grades and doing many things for the last time. Although your teen may mourn final events shared by the school community (last homecoming dance, football game, school play, musical concert, prom), its harder to come to terms with personal losses that cant be publicly shared. Instead of being present with the sadness, many teens find it easier to express anger, and those outbursts may be directed at family members. They may subconsciously think its easier to part from a stupid, whining younger sister or a controlling, uncaring parent than close family members whom they love and are afraid to leave; thus, they may act in ways that create a distance. Ignore the nasty outbursts and the labels. This is not your teen hating on you- its your teen subconsciously trying to make it easier to disengage from the family. Many families report that more arguments break out in the final months before college than ever before. Your teen may label you or other family members, but thats not a judgment on you as a parent. Its stereotyping just like the labels ugly stepsister or evil stepmother are caricatures and stereotypes. Its easier to imagine a bright future at college when youre leaving behind a stereotypical clinging mother, overbearing father, or younger sibling whos always butting in.Dont take it personally. You arent doing anything wrong- this is just a normal part of growing up. Teens who are trying to find independence need to differentiate themselves from parents and family and express their own strong opinions and ideas of how things should be done. Dont conclude that your child has always hated you and that their real nature is com ing out now that theyre leaving for college. Its just part of the separation process and is a temporary stage of development. Dont take it to heart; its not your child talking- its the fear of leaving home and entering the adult world thats lashing out at you. Keep calm and carry on. You may be shopping for bedsheets or towels and a fight erupts over the smallest of things. Take a deep breath, keep calm, and carry on with what youre doing. Resist the urge to give up and do it another day. The more you can stick with your routines and all your planned college preparation, the more youll minimize conflict and stress. It wont be easier to shop or get through your childs college to-do list if you postpone it for a better day because that day may not come unless you keep it together and deal with these moments calmly. The  School Drop-Off Move-in day is always chaotic and disorganized. You may have been assigned a specific move-in time or arrive as one of the hundreds of cars queued up to drop off boxes and suitcases. Whatever the situation, let your child take the lead. One of the worst things parents can do that can earn them the helicopter label is to micromanage every aspect of move-in day and make their daughter or son seem childish and helpless, especially in front of the RA or dorm mates they will be living with. Let your student sign in, pick up the dorm key or key card, and find out about the availability of equipment such as hand trucks or moving carts. Although you might want to do things differently, its your incoming freshmans new life and new dorm room, not yours. There are no prizes for the person who moves in first, so dont feel as if you have to rush. Likewise, there is no right or wrong. Remember whose college life this is. One emotion that parents feel (but are reluctant to acknowledge) is regret or jealousy. All of us have some happy memories of college, and if we could turn the clock back, most of us would be eager to relive a day or two of our college experiences. Dont beat yourself up over this; envy is something many parents feel. Youre not the only one, and this doesnt make you a bad parent. But dont let that jealousy influence your students first day at college. Let them find their own experiences in their own time.Dont pass judgment. Maybe their  new roommate looks like a disaster and the teen down the hall seems like a better fit. No matter what your opinions are, keep them to yourself, and dont share your comments with your child. Your childs living independently means making their own judgments and assessing people and situations by themselves. If you walk into your childrens college life and already start making these assessments, youve disenfranchised them without even realizing it and are not giving them the chance or the credit to make up their own mind about things. Be pleasant, positive, and neutral about all that happens. Let your student do the talking. There will be a lot of new people to meet and names to remember. And it is your childs job to keep it all straight, not yours. If youre the parent of a socially awkward or shy student, you may find it hard not to jump in and take over the situation, make introductions all around, and negotiate the top or bottom bunk or the better dresser and desk for your offspring. Keep reminding yourself that its not your college experience or your decision to make- its your childs. Any choice that they make is the right one because they made it, and not anyone else.Prepare for not being completely prepared. No matter how far in advance you plan or how thorough you are in your list-making, shopping, and packing, youll either forget something or find that certain things dont work in your childs new living arrangements or new life. Dont overbook your drop-off day with no extra time to run to the nearest drugstore, supermarket, or discount store, because you will want to pick up those essentials you somehow overlooked. Its a lot easier for you to make that quick trip by car instead of leaving your child with extra cash and expecting them to walk or take a bus to unfamiliar locations. Plan an extra two hours of unscheduled time so you can take care of these things. Be like Goldilocks porridge: just right. Take a cue from the story The Three Little Bears. When the time comes to say goodbye and leave your child at school, dont be too warm (weepy and wailing and clutching on for dear life) and dont be too cold (distant and perfunctory in your hug goodbye and too matter-of-fact in your emotions). Strive to be just right. Its OK to shed some tears and give your child a good, solid, Ill really miss you bear hug and say how much you love and will miss them. Kids expect that and feel hurt if you dont show sufficient emotion. This is not the time to put on the brave, stoic face. Show the honest emotions of a parent who loves a child and finds it hard to pull away. After all, thats exactly what youre feeling, and honesty is the best policy. Post Drop-Off Days and Weeks Youve said goodbye. Now mean it. It may be hard to believe, but some parents text their children the minute they get in the car and drive away. Put the phone down and give them their space. Dont call every day to make sure everythings OK. If possible, let your child be the one to touch base. Many parents agree on a predetermined day and time to talk to their child by phone or Skype, typically once a week. By respecting boundaries and their need to separate, you will help your child establish an independent life and develop a new support network of others they can trust.Dont hover, but be there. Many parents use social media to keep track of their kids at college and ask their children to friend them so they can maintain contact. Watch and look, but dont post or comment. Let them have their own space. And if your child tells you about incidents at college that are upsetting, resist the urge to get involved unless they ask you to intervene. Part of growing up involves facing difficult or challenging moments and finding a way through those hard times. Signs of maturity include flexibility, adaptability,  and resilience, and college is the ideal time to work on these skills. But if situations escalate to the point at which they threaten your childs physical or mental health- or put them in jeopardy- step in and offer aid. But ask for permission first. You want to support your child as much as possible but not to the extent that you dismantle the initial foundation of self-sufficiency. Finding the right balance will take time, but eventually, youll both get there.

Education Reform Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Education Reform - Term Paper Example â€Å"The dropout rate is also higher in both rural and inner-city areas, where young people lack cultural and financial resources.† (Macionis,2006). The reports have dealt with the growing problems of providing quality education amongst the quantifiable mass. The High School reforms reports speaks about the increasing dropout rates from high schools where students are opting for jobs rather than colleges for higher education. The report gives an insight into the fact that as students prepare in high schools for entry into colleges, does the same preparedness apply when they want to opt for a job. One third of a nation report speaks about the alarming dropout rates of the students which have been measured to be a one third of the entire student population and hence one third of a nation. The closing of the Education Frontier report also highlights the quantifiable figures who are opting out of high schools and colleges which have made the people to remove their blindfold that educational reforms are taking place. Statistics have shown the people the real face of the state of education which is definitely a cause of concern. The fourth report of the twin challenges of mediocrity and inequality gives a comparative overview of the state of literacy over 20 countries of equal or high income where the US is ranked 9th in terms of literacy levels. There are serious questions asked whether the education reform is actually bringing in reform just as the policies are being formed in the legislature. The fifth report of hard facts in education reform addresses the fact that tests cannot be benchmarks of deciding whether there have been educational reforms or not, there has to be a proper planning and implementation strategies which will govern reforms and whether it is actually achieved or not. Part two: analyze all reports individually. is it working? The High School Reforms: Facing Labor Market Realities This report gives a lot of impetus on the fact that since students are already opting for jobs rather than colleges after their high schools, then are they having the necessary academic background and knowledge that they can draw higher incomes as compared to those who are getting their bachelor’s degree. The employers need to give their inputs of what knowledge level they expect from the high school graduates and there is a need for serious analysis into it which has not been addressed. Labor Market realities are not working currently but there is a need for the practical job industry to give their inputs to shape up the work executives of tomorrow. â€Å"This report summarizes studies of what employers say they are looking for when they hire for jobs that do not require college degrees.† (Barton,2006). One-Third of a Nation: Rising Dropout Rates and Declining Opportunities This report gives out the statistics that the school dropout rates have been rising alarmingly across the United States. â€Å"The High School Completio n Rate has been Falling. Nationally, after peaking at 77.1 percent in 1969, the rate dropped to 69.9 percent in 2000.† (Barton,2005). â€Å"In high school completion rates, the United States has slipped to 10th place in the world.†(Barton,2005). There have been models like talent development, Maryland’s Tomorrow, Communities in Schools and Quantum opportunity programs which has assisted in retaining the students. Though these models have

Gender And Power Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Gender And Power - Essay Example It is in this regards that the paper presents a detailed analysis of the trio to provide a clear cut difference while at the same time initiating various developments in each sector. An examination of gender presents many underlying factors that require a strategy for successful initiation of equality. Gender imbalance remains a common activity in many societies with women disadvantaged while making decisions and carrying out various activities. The roadmap in the gender sector involves achieving equality by addressing six key areas of the society. Employment remains a vital area of consideration in order to achieve gender sustainability (Disch 45). This involves giving equal chances to both the genders with women given equal chances as men. An analysis of labor market points out that there is a structural difference of 15 percent between men and women. The gap continues to widen due to structural inequalities with only 30 percent of women existing as entrepreneurs. This is because, â€Å"Welfare reform is only one dimension of the shrinkage of social support systems from federal and state assistance. The shrinkage of social support is not only affecting the very poor† (Disch 61). For improvement in gender, attempts to increase the percentages become a priority in a road map to achieve a balance. Notably, poverty becomes another crucial element to be addressed to bridge the gap as these leads to heath risks and lack of sustainability power. Since there is an interrelation between gender race and class, improvement of gender without race and class will be invalid. It in this regards that race and class gets addresses while creating employment positions. Young black women for instance find it difficult, to make decisions while at the same time securing employment. Race draws a line in many activities dictating who should be doing what and who should be entering in which place. This is because, â€Å"complex array of antiblack practices, the unjustly gaine d political-economic power of whites†¦ and the white racial ideologies and attitudes created to maintain and rationalize white privilege and power† (Disch 82) Racial analysis is, therefore, a fundamental aspect as it determines many things in the society. For a black boy to secure a place in school, for example, many conditions are given as compared to white children. Consequently, it becomes difficult for a black person to secure an employment opportunity as compared to a white person. In developing countries, white gets treated with respects as compared to how blacks get treated in the same positions. This, therefore, dictates that race play a significant role in the society that needs mainstreaming in order to provide sustainability. The relation of this aspect to gender and class further complicates it as due to its substantial role in determining and dictating success of other avenues. Class is a common phenomenon in the society, which also play a significant role in either motivating racial discrimination or gender disparity. According to research, â€Å"The United States is in the midst of a sizable redistribution of wealth, with a greater concentration of wealth and income in the hands of a few than at most previous periods of time† (Disch 103) People of high class get preferential treatment in every class. This is the same to race where people from a given class of race find privileges than others. This calls for a question with no answer but steps.

A childs education is increasingly dependent on the wealth and wishes Essay

A childs education is increasingly dependent on the wealth and wishes of their parents, rather than the ability of pupils themselves. Discuss - Essay Example It is true that a child’s education is increasingly dependent on the wealth and wishes of their parents, rather than the ability of pupils themselves? How accessible is education in the United Kingdom? What sorts of conflicts does the inaccessibility of education produce? These questions and many more will be addressed and applied to this holistic analysis of education in the United Kingdom. Education is supposed to be meritocratic in nature and the means through which people break through the cumbersome social barriers of class and privilege. Is it true that education is meritocratic and based upon the notion that education allows people to advance, progress and move forward in life? A basic premise of the sociology of education is that it promotes greater equality and is based upon merit and equal opportunity for all. The expansion of education in the past two hundred years in the United Kingdom remains an incredible advance which has purportedly increased social equality to the betterment of society. Less than one hundred years ago, the educational institutions of this country were effectively closed to women, ethnic minorities and a whole host of other groups. Incredibly, educational opportunities were denied to more than 50% of the population for centuries. The sociology of education emphatically argues that public schooling and universal education promotes social equality, social cohesion and is characterised by opportunities for progress and social growth. A fundamental underpinning of the sociology of education is that it is meritoocratically based and that it promotes great equlaity. Now that educational access has expanded across this country, is it true that education promotes social equality and is based upon the merits of individual students? According to scholars Persell & Cookson in their study of

Physiological Demands Of The Marathon

Physiological Demands Of The Marathon Mark Speedie is a national level runner, aged 25. Historically his training has involved continuous running training but he understands that interval training and/or resistance training may further enhance his performance. The aim of the marathon is to maintain a high power output over the official 42.195km distance, a feat which requires substantial physical and psychological preparedness (John A. Hawley Fiona J. Spargo, 2007; McLaughlin, Howley, Bassett, Thompson, Fitzhugh, 2010). Success in the event depends upon a number of physiological, psychological and environmental factors. National level marathon running demands a high aerobic capacity and the ability to perform at a high fraction of it for a sustained period of time. A complex interplay of cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, pulmonary, and metabolic systems is necessary to achieve this. The purpose of this summary is to outline the physiological demands of the marathon, the mechanisms of performance resultant of the aforementioned characteristics and to introduce training methods documented in recent literature to enhance attributes and performance (time) of the marathon at national level. A.V Hill (1926) reports a high VO2Max to be the key determinant underpinning endurance performance. Astrand and Rodahl (1986) describe VO2Max as the highest rate at which the body can uptake and utilise oxygen (O2) during severe exercise at sea level; it sets the ceiling of ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation and is a key determinant of marathon performance. VO2max is traditionally increased as a result of performing high volume, low intensity (60% VO2Max) long slow distance (LSD) running. The volume of oxygen consumed (VO2) (Berger, Campbell, Wilkerson, Jones) at a given work rate, is more commonly termed running economy (RE) or described as the metabolic cost of running (Cr). McLaughlin et al., (2010) report a strong correlation between RE and 16km time (r =0.812), Billet et al. (2001) suggest a strong correlation between VO2Peak and Cr (r=0.65, P= 0.04), and Midgley et al. (2006) detail highly correlated (r=0.62) improvements in RE with LSD training (Midgley, McNaughton, Wilkinson, 2006; McLaughlin, et al., 2010), similarly resistance training has been reported to derive similar improvements in RE ( Bonacci, Chapman, Blanch, Vicenzino, 2009; Storen, Helgerud, Stoa, Hoff, 2008a). Research on lactate threshold (LT) suggest it is a sound predictor of marathon race velocity (Coyle, 2007). Once considered largely a waste product of glycolysis lactate (La-) is now considered an important metabolic fuel (Gladden, 2004). La- increases are indicative of work rates exceeding possible levels of fat oxidation required to sustain ATP production, therefore intracellular signalling stimulates glycogenolysis and glycolysis to meet ATP demands (Joyner Coyle, 2008; Spriet, 2007). The efficacy of alternative training protocols said to enhance physiological traits of marathon performance are emerging. Improvements of up to 7% in RE are been reported following resistance training protocols (Berryman, Maurel, Bosquet, 2010; Paavolainen, Hakkinen, Hamalainen, Nummela, Rusko, 1999; Saunders, et al., 2006; Spurrs, Murphy, Watsford, 2003), primarily due to superior stretch shortening cycle (SSC) function in consequence of increased musculotendinous stiffness (A. N. M. C. Turner Jeffreys, 2010). Similarly, SIT is purported to improve endurance performance through possible mechanisms including muscle La- buffering capacity (Laursen, 2010), enhanced enzymatic functioning, skeletal muscle remodelling (Burgomaster, et al., 2008) and metabolic adaptations such as mitochondrial biogenesis (Hawley, et al., 2007). Moreover hypothesis surrounding muscle fibre type transitions and hybrid myosin isoforms, suggest SIT and high intensity interval training (HIIT) may elicit str uctural changes resulting in a greater oxidative capacity of muscle and improved endurance performance (Kubukeli, Noakes, Dennis, 2002). The following article will discuss these mechanisms in further and include recommendations of various training protocols, reported to improve performance. . Word count: 574 Athlete Profile Mark Speedie National athlete, Mark Speedie, has traditionally employed continuous training protocols for race preparation, 71% of total training volume comprising of low intensity training ( Table 1. Athlete Profile: Mark Speedie, sub-elite marathon runner NZ Ranking 4th Current career goals 2016 Olympic podium contender Age (years) 25 Weight (kg) 60 Height (cm) 172 PRM (hr:min:ss) 2:22:00 vMarathon (km.hr-1) 17.8 VO2Peak (mL.kg-1.min-1) 70 LT (%VO2Peak) Unknown Cr: (mL.kg-1.km-1) Unknown MHR (BPM) 195 Cr = Metabolic cost of running (aka running economy), LT = Lactate Threshold, MHR = Maximum heart rate, PRM = personal record for the marathon, vMarathon = velocity for marathon distance In addition to the efficient, integrated nature of body systems required to produce elite performance, body mass and composition, as described by Pollock et.al.,(1977) reported elite marathoners ideally weigh between 59.6 and 66.2 kg with a body fat percentage of approximately 5  ± 2%. A lean stature has been reported to more economical during endurance events for movement efficiency, aerobic economy and heat dissipation (Billat, et al., 2001; Pollock, et al., 1977). Assessments Before recommending new training protocols, it is important to determine the current physiological status of Mark using appropriate, valid and reliable assessment strategies. Laboratory Assessment Intermittent or continuous treadmill protocols performed in the laboratory are used to obtain information pertaining to aerobic function, including VO2Max, RER and metabolic cost of exercise (Cr, RE). Intermittent treadmill protocol is widely used, and has the advantage of 30s recovery periods in which blood samples can be taken to measure substrate levels such as lactate (BLa-). A minimum 3 minute increment is recommended by ACSM (ACSM Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription, 2010, p79) increasing velocity and/or inclination each increment until one of the following occurs; VO2 reaches a plateau despite increasing velocity or inclination; RER à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 1.15; (Esteve-Lanao, et al., 2005) peak HR >95% age-predicted max or RPE of >19 (ACSM p83) after which VO2Max is determined. Similarly, volitional exhaustion may end the test, the highest steady state VO2 is recorded as VO2Peak. Midgley et al. (2006) report significant differences in vVO2Max (km.hr-1) following three tr eadmill protocols, which demonstrates the importance of considering the methodological variations of test protocols and training intensities based upon them when prescribing exercise intensity. It should be mentioned that some articles cited within this report, use the Wingate anaerobic test (WAnT) to determine anaerobic and aerobic function in cyclists, however in a recent study, WAnT was not significantly associated with and therefore not a valid tool, for assessing aerobic function in endurance runners (Legaz-Arrese, Munguà ­a-Izquierdo, Carranza-Garcà ­a, Torres-Dà ¡vila, 2011). BLa- is measured during intermittent treadmill test recovery stages using the Lactate Pro blood lactate analyser, a minimally invasive, fast, accurate and valid test (Pyne, Boston, Martin, Logan, 2000) where blood (5ÃŽÂ ¼l) is taken from either the ear lobe or tip of the second digit after appropriate sterilisation of the area. It is important when re-testing that the same sample point is used as the ear and finger may reflect varying measures of BLa-. Rate of perceived exertion (RPE) and heart rate (HR), as recommended by ACSM (p83) is monitored during incremental treadmill testing, a numerical scale (RPE) and heart rate monitoring device (Polar, Finland) are used during testing, respectively. ECG is used where possible to measure HR as a more accurate and intricate measure. Training intensities can then be quantified and prescribed relative to VO2Max, RER, vVO2Max and BLa-, using HR and RPE, to improve program efficacy. Muscle Performance Prior to recommending resistance training protocols it is essential to obtain baseline measures so as to accurately prescribed loads, and progress. Typically the leg press is recommended to assess lower body strength (ACSM p 90 92), however given the different kinematic variables between leg press movements and running gait; a 1RM squat test will be used as kinematics closer represent gait. The athlete must be familiarised with the movement; test protocols must be standardized using appropriate warm up, trial numbers and progressive load increments; and standardisation of squat depth, stance and bar placement are crucial. The use of a linear position transducer during the squat test provides a fast, efficient and reliable means of measuring useful information such as force, power and velocity, beneficial to program prescription and efficacy (Garcà ­a-Pallarà ©s, Sà ¡nchez-Medina, Carrasco, Dà ­az, Izquierdo, 2009; Harris, Cronin, Hopkins, Hansen, 2008). The modified reactive strength index (RSI) is a reliable and valid scientific tool for measuring SSC efficiency. Recall that improvements in RE are documented to be due to an increase in SSC function. The modified RSI replaces depth jump with the counter movement jump (CMJ), swapping ground contact time with takeoff time to calculate SSC efficiency. CMJ involves eccentric (load), amortization and concentric (unload) phases of the SSC mechanisms (Ebben Petushek, 2010; Flanagan, Ebben, Jensen, 2008). Additional to baseline measures, it is important to track ongoing training status to avoid potential overtraining, and to ensure appropriate training stimulus is being prescribed. Research is currently assessing the reliability and validity of heart rate variability (HRV) and heart rate recovery time (HRRT), as assessment tools, used to indicate the readiness of the athletes next training bout or race. Manzi et a. (2009) suggest the HRV may indicate a high level of performance or exercise readiness (Manzi, et al., 2009), suggesting HRV to be a useful tool to determine training progression. Furthermore, Buchheit et al (2009) report HRRà Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ to be a useful non-invasive means of measuring the athletes physiological status (Buchheit, et al., 2008; Manzi, et al., 2009). Further research is required to assess the reliability of HRR and HRV in elite and sub-elite athletes undertaking a combined endurance and strength training regime however may be useful for testing readiness followin g aerobic and anaerobic training sessions. Field Test In addition to laboratory based testing, it is important to assess performance measures using activities which simulate race conditions. For Mark, a 10km track run is performed to determine performance time (10PT). Coyle et al. (2007) report marathon race velocity to be à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€ 10% slower when compared with 10PT and to be an appropriate test to measure physiological improvements in marathon athletes. Training Models Training adaptations require appropriate stimulus and prescription of mode, duration, frequency, loads and intensities, while balancing accompanied stress responses to elicit performance improvements. While the dose-response relationship is gaining more ground in scientific research a previously mentioned, training models and intensities are well documented. Training Zones have been widely used in association with data points determined during gas and blood analysis to mark training intensity. These include percentage of, or HR at, VO2Max, LT or vVO2Max. A number of associated training models are discussed in the literature with respect to endurance running, additional to traditional training methods. The Polarized Training Model, whereby athletes perform a high percentage (75%) of training volume in Zone 1( The Threshold Training Model, more commonly used with untrained and moderately trained individuals, involves the athlete performing a large portion of their training in Zone 2 (60 75% VO2Max)(Esteve-Lanao et al, 2007), at or around the ventilatory threshold or maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) (Laursen, 2010). It has been documented that LT, is closely related to marathon velocity (Coyle, 2007; Roecker, S., Niess, H., Dickhuth., 1998). Prolonged training at this higher intensity, however, is shown to down-regulate the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), subsequently, due to a decrease in catecholamine secretion and sensitivity, reducing Q and blood distribution resulting in reduced performance (Esteve-Lanao, et al., 2007; Lehmann, et al., 1992). HIT is effective however, when prescribed over short duration, concomitant to reduced volume and monitoring. Acevedo and Goldfarb (1989) report improvements in 10PT of 3%, despite no change in VO2Max or ventilatory threshold, after HIT bouts in well-trained long-distance runners (Acevedo Goldfarb, 1989). In a study on highly trained middle and long distance runners Denadai et al., (2006) report 1.2 4.2% improvements in vVO2max, RE (2.6-6.3%) and 1500m performance (0.8-1.9%) following four weeks HIT, twice per week, performed at 95% to 100% vVO2Max for 60% of the time that subjects were able to remain at that velocity during assessment (Denadai, de Mello, Greco, Ortiz, 2006). More recently, sprint interval training (SIT) performed at all out maximal efforts has been shown to elicit similar metabolic responses in well trained endurance cyclists (Burgomaster, Heigenhauser, Gibala, 2004; Lindsay, et al., 1996; Talanian, Macklin, Peiffer, Parker, Quintana, 2003) and distance runners (Macpherson, Hazell, Olver, Paterson, Lemon, 2011; Mujika, 2010), with concomitant improvements in endurance performance, metabolic control, RE (5.7 7.6 %) (Iaia, et al., 2009) and skeletal muscle adaptations. Alterations in aerobic power and peripheral mechanisms as documented in a study by Macpherson et.al (2011), report significant improvements in VO2Max (P = 0.001) of 11.5% (46.8  ± 1.6 to 52.2  ± 2.0 mL.kg.-1.min-1) and a(VO2)difference (7.1%) without changes in SV or Q, suggesting aerobic improvements after SIT are as a result of peripheral alterations. Moreover SIT has been shown to induce alterations in skeletal muscle mitochondrial enzymes; citrate synthase CS, 3- hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase ß-HAD, suggestive of increased lipid oxidation; pyruvate dehydrogenase PDH, indicating decrease in skeletal muscle CHO oxidation, muscle glycogenolysis and PCr utilisation similar to that reported after endurance training (Burgomaster, et al., 2008). ß-HAD stimulation following SIT, is potentially the result of a rapid decrease in muscle PCr availability in conjunction with continued high work rates required to generate maximal power (Spriet, 2007). In a study by Hazell et al. (2011) authors suggest that the coupling of PCr hydrolysis and oxidative phosphorylation provide an acute challenge to the mitochondria resulting in adaptation and that insufficient recoveries between exercise bouts force skeletal muscle to regenerate ATP as anaerobic contribution decreases, may contribute to improved aerobic power following SIT (Hazell, MacPherson, Gravelle, Lemon, 2010). Furthermore, increases in skeletal muscle buffering capacity (ßm) (à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€  200 240 ÃŽÂ ¼atom H+ /g dry wt/pH unit), content of MCT 1 (monocarboxylate 1), found predominantly in type I fibres and required for La- transportation into muscle fibres for ATP production; and MCT 4, found in type II fibres, required for La- transport out of muscle fibres of 70% and 30% respectively (Kubukeli, et al., 2002) has been documented relative to improved anaerobic performance (Gibala, et al., 2006) following SIT. Additionally, Gibala et.al. (2009), report increases in AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and calcium signalling mechanisms all of which are purported to be involved in the regulation of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PGC-1ÃŽÂ ±), which coordinates mitochondrial biogenesis. The oxidative enzyme expression regulation in skeletal muscle, suggests potential skeletal muscle remodelling (Gibala, et al., 2006) following SIT. Skeletal muscle plasticity is inconclusive however a recent publication by McCarthy (2011) indicates the coordination of fibre-type transitions through non-coding RNA (MiRNA) suggest coordination of fibre-type changes in response to altered training stimulus supporting the theory of skeletal muscle remodelling (McCarthy, 2011). Evidence suggests that various resistance training protocols can improve long distance running performance, by enhancing biomechanical structures to reduce fatigue and injury as a result of inefficient movement. Further, resistance training has been well documented to improve RE and endurance performance (Mikkola, Rusko, Nummela, Pollari, Hakkinen, 2007; Paavolainen, et al., 1999; Storen, et al., 2008a). Performance improvements are indicative of neuromuscular stretch shortening cycle (SSC) adaptations (Saunders, et al., 2006) and reportedly due to an increase in ÃŽÂ ±-motor neuron potentiation and subsequent increase in motor unit (MU) innervation; greater contractile force; improved neural connections at spinal level; increase MU synchronisation, and consequent rate of force development (RFD) (Wilmore, 2008 pp206; Drinkwater et al. 2009); and alterations to neural inhibitory mechanisms decreasing co-activation of antagonist muscles (Hoff Helgerud, 2004; Millet, Jaouen, Borrani, Candau, 2002). Hoff et.al., (2004) suggest RFD increases (52.3%) in soccer players improve overall economy; moreover, reported a positive correlation between arterial flow transit time and a(VO2) difference potentially increasing time to fatigue at submaximal velocities (Hoff Helgerud, 2004; Storen, Helgerud, Stoa, Hoff, 2008b). Furthermore, Turner et. al. (2010) suggest that plyometric training induc es increased musculotendinous stiffness (MTS), positively correlated with improved power, force and velocity (Bosjen-Moller et. al., 2005), shorter ground contact times (Kuitunen et. al., 2002) and enhanced propulsive forces during toe off (A. M. Turner, Owings, Schwane, 2003; A. N. M. C. Turner Jeffreys, 2010) contribute to improved SSC function. Exercise Prescription Recommendations The progressive implementation of resistance training protocols for a marathon athlete such as Mark, is required to produce adaptations safely and effectively. He is advised to employ a two to three day per week model initially, graduating intensity, complexity, frequency and/or duration accordingly as performance indicators improve and tolerance levels adjust. General, functional full body exercises (low weight, high repetition) aimed at improving muscular endurance; musculoskeletal condition and motor coordination are recommended in accordance to Esteve-Lanao (2007). The athletes psychological state is important when altering training parameters, circuit training protocols which elicit a HR response, include eight to 10 exercises, followed by short running intervals (400m) may be beneficial to the athletes transition to resistance training. Following the initial conditioning phase, a heavy strength cycle of four to eight weeks, performed two to three days per week, with low (one to five) repetitions of heavy loads as derived from strength assessments is recommended. Improvements of approximately 5% demonstrated during four to 10 week interventions (Kelly et. al., 2008, Storen et.al., 2008, Millet et.al., 2002) are detailed in Table 2. Exercises should remain functional multi-joint movements (squats, deadlifts, lunges) and aim to develop neural alterations to musculature highly involved in running gait at SSC movements. Explosive and eccentric training protocols, including power exercises (jump squats, hang clean), gait development (single leg squat), and eccentric load (Nordic curls) should follow in the late stages of the conditioning phase. These methods have been shown to improve RFD and muscle power factors. Research suggests one to two days of explosive training, over a four to eight week period is adequate for obtaining desired power adaptations, and maintaining strength. Some low volume, low intensity plyometric training may be included during this phase also (Berryman et. al., 2010, Paavolanien et.al., 1999) aimed at condition SSC mechanisms. Plyometric training (jumping, hopping, bounding and skipping) has been reported to produce improvements in RE and endurance performance of up to 7% and 4.8% respectively, in highly trained endurance runners when performed at high intensities, in as little as one to three sessions per week over a six to eight week period (Berryman et. al., 2010). High intensity plyometric training can be implemented leading up to competition phase and is specifically designed to improve SSC function. Functional resistance run training, including running with vests, sleds, chutes, hills, sand or mud, during this phase is recommended. Estevo-Lanao (2007) suggests this should be performed at specific competition velocity and should be coordinated with a reduced running volume leading into the late competition phase. Mark is advised to continue with one maintenance strength session per week, at low load and intensity with adequate recovery intervals so as not to cause any muscle damage leading into his main races, allowing approximately one to two weeks taper, whereby no resistance training should be performed. Re-testing of performance and strength parameters prior to commencing a new training phase is recommended to assess and make changes accordingly for the subsequent training cycles. During the base phase of training, HIT and SIT may be used supplementary to LSD training. Reports have shown that replacing 25% to 90% (Burgomaster, et al., 2008) of LSD volume with HIT/SIT has not changed performance times, however has produceed similar metabolic responses when compared to LSD. As the literature fails to report performance improvements, it is advised that these extreme volumes of LSD are not removed from Marks schedule; however a reduction a volume is recommended when implementing SIT. It is adequate to say that responses from HIT and SIT occur substantially and quickly, requiring no more than four to six weeks at high volumes (J. Esteve-Lanao, et al., 2007; Gibala, et al., 2006; Hazell, et al., 2010). Typically, SIT protocols include four to six 30-s all out bouts of running, separated by two to four minutes of recovery (Burgomaster, et al., 2008; Gibala, et al., 2006). Training progression should also be applied to SIT, increasing the number of all out bouts from four to six repetitions over the recommended four to six week duration, after which, ATP is reduced significantly and no further metabolic or skeletal changes evident. With this in mind, HIT and SIT protocols should be introduced at approximately six weeks out from the first main priority race in the competition phase, after appropriate re-testing signifying required adaptations (Gibala, et al., 2006). Cardiovascular, metabolic and neural alterations and also muscular improvements contribute to race performance by 2% to 8% in distance runners in a recent study by Lunden (2010). Conversely, single fibre power of MHC IIa muscle fibres appear to be a prevalent adaptation, and likely contributor to the 3% improvement in running performance reported by Luden et al. (2010) as such a taper period of one to two weeks with a load decrease of 50% in week one and a further 25% in week two, is recommended, in order to yield the physiological alterations of training (Luden, et al., 2010). To summarise, metabolic adaptations, similar to those seen after continuous training protocols, have been reported after four to six week interventions of SIT at a substantially lower training volumes than LSD, making this an effective method of training to maintain metabolic condition while reducing training volume. MHC isoform transitions, resulting in more oxidative IIa fibres, although requiring further research, indicates that SIT/HIT be beneficial for enhancing neuromuscular parameters and also peripheral factors (O2 utilisation) associated with endurance performance at the elite level. Potentially, a greater population of IIa fibres, in conjunction with metabolic alterations resulting in more efficient lipid oxidation and CHO sparing, may contribute to greater power output from higher order fibres, with maximum metabolic efficiency, particularly in the final stages of the marathon, where lower order fibres and fuel sources are depleted. Future research is required to determine cardio-respiratory factors which may be affected as a result of reducing training volume in order to prescribe optimal volume reductions, without implicating performance. HRV and HRRT may provide useful assessment tools for this research to determine adequate training stimuli and recovery. Moreover, resistance training has been shown to improve RE and performance by up to 7%, while reducing the risk of injury and biomechanical fatigue, although some reports conflict this, there is outstanding evidence in the literature that resistance training is beneficial at the elite level. In conclusion, it is recommended that after appropriate assessment, SIT and resistance training protocols are gradually introduced to Marks training regime. It is important to reduce total training volume during high intensity cycles of training, however suitable progression and test-re-test monitoring to track performance alterations is suggested in order to track any decline in cardio-respiratory or musculoskeletal condition. Additionally a one to four yearly plan is recommended in order to develop Mark safely and effectively towards his 2016 Olympic goals. Word count: 3340 Table 2. Resistance training, alterations to running economy and endurance performance Study Subjects (total number, caliber, gender) Training Method Frequency and Duration Volume Control RE (%) RP km %/sec Turner et al., 2003 18 Moderately trained Mixed Plyometric Training 3d/w x 6 wks 1 set 5 25 reps Regular Endurance Running à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ2.3* Spurrs et al., 2003 8 Moderately trained Males Plyometric Training 2-3d/w x 6 wk 2 3 sets x 8-15 reps Regular Endurance Running à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ5.7* à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ 3km 2.7% 16.6 sec Saunders et al., 2006 15 Highly trained Plyometric Training 3d/w x 9 wk 30 mins 107  ± 43 km of running per week à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ 4.1* Berryman et al., 2010 35 Highly trained Males Plyometric 1 d/w x 8 weeks 3 6 sets x 8 repetitions Endurance Running 3 x per week à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ7* à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ 3km 4.8% 36 sec Paavolanien et al. 1999 10 Moderately trained Males Sport Specific Explosive Strength Training 2d/w x 9 wks 15 90 mins Endurance running, circuit training à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ8.1* à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ 5k 3.1% Mikkola et al., 2007 25 Moderately trained Mixed Explosive Strength Training 3d/w x 8 wks 2 3 set x 6 -10 repetitions Endurance Running à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬  à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬  Guglielmo et al. 2009 16 Highly trained Explosive Strength 2d/w x 4 wks 3,4,5 x 12 RM Endurance training (60 80km.wk-1) à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬  Berryman et al., 2010 35 Highly trained Males Explosive Training 1 d/w x 8 weeks 3 6 sets x 8 repetitions Endurance Running 3 x per week à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ 4% à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ 3km 4% 31 sec Millet et al., 2002 15 Highly trained Males (triathletes) Strength Training 2d/w x 14 wk 3-5 sets, 3 5 RM Endurance Training (Swim, Bike, Run) à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ 5.6 7 Storen et al., 2008 17 Moderately trained Mixed Strength Training 8 wk 4sets x 4RM Regular Endurance Running à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ5 Kelly et al., 2008 16 Recreational Females Strength Training 3d/w x 10 week 3 x 3 5 RM Regular Endurance running à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ5.4 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ 3km 106 ±91 sec APA Style References ACSM Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription, 8th Edition, 2010. pp79, 83, 90 -92 Acevedo, E. O., Goldfarb, A. H. (1989). Increased training intensity effects on plasma lactate, ventilatory threshold, and endurance. Medicine Science in Sports Exercise October, 21(5), 563-568. Berger, N. J. A., Campbell, I. T., Wilkerson, D. P., Jones, A. M. (2006). Influence of acute plasma volume expansion on VO2 kinetics, VO2peak, and performance during high-intensity cycle exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 101(3), 707-714. Berryman, N., Maurel, D., Bosquet, L. (2010). Effect of Plyometric vs. Dynamic Weight Training on the Energy Cost of Running. The Journal of Strength Conditioning Research, 24(7), 1818-1825 1810. Billat, V. L., Demarle, A., Slawinski, J., Paiva, M., Koralsztein, J.-P. (2001). Physical and training characteristics of top-class marathon runners. Medicine

Iago’s Use of Tone and Simile to Deceive Othello in Shakespeare’s Othello :: Othello Essays

Iago’s Use of Tone and Simile to Deceive Othello in Shakespeare’s Othello The greatest and best villains in literature are those who possess the ability to manipulate others in order to further their own causes. In Othello, Iago has the insight and tact to manipulate the other characters, such as Cassio, Roderigo, Desdemona, and in this case, Othello. The methods by which Iago works the other characters are varied, and one prime example of his cunning ability to manipulate can be seen in Act III.iii.333-450. In this passage Iago utilizes many rhetorical strategies to his advantage; in particular he uses tone and simile. These rhetorical strategies are instrumental in the deception of Othello. Throughout this passage Iago’s tone when he speaks is critical in his effort to make Othello do as planned. This tone is one of innocence and loyalty, and is used effectively to make Othello trust Iago’s statements. Iago appears to be innocent in his reluctance to relate to Othello what he knows about Desdemona and Cassio, as seen on lines 373-380. In this particular passage Iago uses his tone to demonstrate how he did not want to make enemies by telling the truth. Consequently, Othello assumes that Iago is not a part of any scheme and therefore must be telling the truth. The tone of innocence and loyalty to Othello is one of the methods by which Iago successfully manipulates Othello. Not only does Iago utilize the rhetorical strategy of tone, he also employs similes to emphasize points. On lines 403-405, Iago uses multiple similes with the intent of deceiving Othello into thinking that Desdemona and Cassio had a promiscuous relationship. By saying that they were â€Å"as prime as goats† and â€Å"as hot as monkeys†, Iago is almost directly saying that they are having wild sexual relations. Furthermore, by using these similes, Iago helps to confirm Othello’s suspicion of Cassio and Desdemona, which was brought about by Iago in the first place. The use of similes is instrumental in Iago’s manipulation of Othello as seen in this passage.

Psy/220- Week 1 Check Point- Positive Psychology Themes

Positive Psychology Themes I believe that positive psychology gives a better understanding that we are able to improve the quality of our own lives by making positive decisions and learning from experiences in the past. Positive psychology attempts to encourage interpersonal relationships, happiness, and positive social interactions. Personal growth and our ability to control our own destiny are also factors of positive psychology. In my opinion positive psychology teaches us that we have the freedom to make autonomous choices in life even though the negative influences still surround us. Through the incremental theory, positive psychology has stressed the amount of importance of human adjustment as a malleable cognitive characteristic that encourages change in our beliefs, behaviors, and environments; in order to acquire personal freedom through self-control and self-esteem Positive psychology acknowledges that we are creatures and creators of our personal and social worlds. I think that we become less creatures of our world and more creators as we assume the responsibility for the actions we take in life. Through our freedom of autonomy we develop a certain sense of morality and ethics. Positive psychology also evaluates the issue of control in relation to leading a fulfilling life. If a person has an internal locus of control they are more likely to push to achieve their full potential in the things they do. On the other hand those with an external locus of control feel powerless within their own lives and attempt to settle for less than what they deserve because they feel they have no control over their life. If we were to fully understand the themes of positive psychology we could become more qualified to improve our own lives.

Distributed Energy Production Essays

Distributed Energy Production Essays Distributed Energy Production Essay Distributed Energy Production Essay Distributed Energy Production Name: Course: Date: Distributed Energy Production Abstract This report reviews the costs associated with the use of green energy sources. In particular, it focuses on the use of solar and wind power. The report explains the methods used in the research as well as the results obtained after the research was concluded. From these results, several conclusions are made based on the viability of the sources of energy financially, economically and socially. The laws of the areas under investigation has also been included especially those that directly affect the use of both wind and solar powered energy. The opinions of the citizens relating to the installation of green energy in the area under study have also been raised. From this report, the viability of the green energy campaign has been evaluated and reported based on the area under study, which was in the state of Virginia. Distributed Energy Production 1. Introduction This report analyzes the importance of the utilization of green power. Green power refers to the use of renewable sources of energy as opposed to the non-renewable sources. Renewable sources include the likes of wind power and sunlight. They are essential in the conservation of the environment since they are renewable. This project was initiated to investigate the economic practicality and feasibility of the project in residential estates for example. Practicality will be considered by evaluation of the cost of the green energy. Feasibility on the other hand will address how dependable the use of green energy is in the residential area in question. The report identifies possible methods of how the use of green energy may be used in the area in question, Virginia. 2. Materials and Methods For this project, the materials required were an electric bill from the area under study and an estimate of the cost of the installation of the green energy in the area. This cost estimate obtained will be compared with that of green energy. The calculations done were non-biased in order to minimize the sources of error in the results obtained. Subsequent work took place in the laboratory since most of it involved calculations. These calculations had to be done correctly in order to endure that the results obtained were as accurate as possible to determine the economic viability of the project. They required the determination of the cost for 100% replacement of the energy use in the area under study. 3. Results a) Table representing the electrical usage of the residential site under study in Virginia MonthkWhOct 20111702Nov 20111830Dec 20112306Jan 20122482Feb 20122148Mar 20121740May 20121566Jun 20121699Jul 20121924Aug 20122711Sept 20122677Oct 20121983 b) The total cost for this period illustrated above was $191.64 c) Total cost of replacement of energy use by wind energy The approximate wind energy used was between 15-20 mph. The results will be based on the maximum and minimum values acquired after the calculation. I. Wind Turbine Power attained by the use of the 20 mph wind speed provided yearly= 15298 KWH Amount of power provided in percentage= 716 % Approximate amount of savings per annum=$ 2447.68 II. Wind Turbine Power attained by the use of the 15 mph wind speed provided yearly= 6454 KWH. Amount of power provided per annum= 302% Approximate savings made per year= $1032. 00 III. Total cost of the installation of the wind Turbine Power System in the area under study= $13, 750.00 c) Total cost of replacement using solar energy For solar energy, it was assumed that there was 3days storage to cater for the possibility of the occurrence of cloudy days. Panel battery calculations per household based on the 3800 watt daily usage= 10 solar panels. Cost of a single solar panel= $150.00 Total cost of installation of solar panels=$1500 Total savings obtained with this installation= $2500.00 Total cost of installation in a residential area of about ten families= $15, 000 Economic incentives that may affect the selection of either option include the reliability of the source of energy and the feasibility of the source of energy to the selected area. In the case of reliability, it will have a substantial effect on the economic situation of the area in question. If the source of energy is unreliable, the productivity of the businesses in the area will be affected as well. On the other hand, the feasibility of the installation of the source of energy refers to how appropriate the energy source is to the area in question. If the installation is not strenuous to the locality, it is feasible. Feasibility of the system is critical to the development of the town and the running of the area in question. The above economic incentives influence the selection process greatly. 4. Discussion From the results obtained, the use of green energy is economically viable since it is affordable even without the provision of government incentives. Conservation strategies like the use of appliances that consume less power may be used in order to decrease the amount of electricity in demand in both administrative and residential areas. In the state if Virginia, the installation of wind turbines is prohibited (Musgrove, 2010). In order to change this, the zoning policies will need to be reviewed to include the installation of the wind turbines. Some localities have decided to modify the laws in their areas of residence to allow the use of green energy. Such localities include Missouri and Texas (Douglas et al, 2009). The public considers wind energy beneficial in the conservation of the environment but the greater majority considers it unreliable. Installation of solar panels is allowed in the state of Virginia. Solar energy is assumed more feasible and reliable than wind energy by the residents of Virginia (Parks, 2010). An impediment to small-scale power generation is the cost that is associated with it. Power generation is very expensive since it requires the acquisition of new machinery that is costly. Distributed, on-site generation of solar or wind power will not be economically, legally and socially acceptable to the majority of the people in the area under study. This is mostly because of their reliability. These sources of energy are not reliable when compared to the power generated by fossil fuel. For this reason, the installation of these green sources of energy in the area in question will be faced with a lot of opposition especially from the business people in the area.

Principal-Agent theory1 Essays

Principal-Agent theory1 Essays Principal-Agent theory1 Paper Principal-Agent theory1 Paper At its simplest, principal-agent theory examines situtations in which there are two main actors, a principal who is usually the owner of an asset, and the agent who makes decisions which affect the value of that asset, on behalf of the principal. As applied to the firm, the theory often identifies the owner of the firm as principal, and the manager as agent, but the principal could also be a manager, and an employee nominated by the manager to represent him in some aspect of the business could be the agent. In this case the asset, which the agents decisions could enhance or diminish, is the managers reputation. To explain the relationship between principal-agent (or agency) theory, and other theories of the firm, we turn to Williamsons (1985, pp. 23-29) categorisation of approaches in IO in terms of their views on contracts. There are two main such approaches or branches: monopoly, which views contracts as a means of obtaining or increasing monopoly power, and efficiency, which views contracts as a means of economising. The early work on SCP and particularly on barriers to entry, for example, belong on the monopoly branch of contracts. Both transaction cost and principal-agent theories belong on the efficiency branch (together with most of what Williamson calls the New Institutional Economics). Thus, in Williamsons perspective, agency theory is the theory that focuses on the design and improvement of contracts between principals and agents. Among the major concerns of principal-agent theory is the relationship between ownership and control2, and in this respect it can be seen to have emerged from the managerial theory tradition. Indeed, in that it focuses on the contractual aspects of that relationship, and often adopts game-theoretic methods, principal-agent theory can be seen as a new IO version of a sub-set of managerial theory. Recent work in this area tends to be highly theoretical3. Principal-agent theory sees the firm as does neoclassical theory as a legal entity with a production function, contracting with outsiders (including suppliers and customers) and insiders (including owners and managers). There is information asymmetry between principals and agents, but, unlike in transaction cost theory (which usually assumes bounded rationality) there is often assumed to be unbounded rationality. We will discuss this in more detail below; in the context of the design of contracts between principals and agents, unbounded rationality refers to the ability of those designing the contract to take all possible, relevant, future events into consideration. The principal may know various things not known to the agent (in relation, for example, to the prospects of the firm), and vice versa (the agent may have a lower commitment to the firm than he leads the principal to believe), but if the obligations of both under the contract can be specified, taking into consideration the possibilites arising from private information, then there is unbounded rationality despite the information asymmetry. The agency theorists concerns and in this they are different from neoclassical theorists are with owners and managers problems of coping with asymmetric information, measurement of performance, and incentives (Chandler, 1992b). The major difference between principal-agent and transaction cost theories is that the former focuses on the contract, the latter on the transaction. The problem for principal-agent theory is how to formulate a contract such that the shareholders (the principal) will have their interests advanced by the manager (the agent), despite the fact that the managers interests may diverge from those of the shareholders4. Where objectives of the agent are different from those of the principal, and the principal cannot easily tell to what extent the agent is acting self-interestedly in ways diverging from the principals interests, then the problem of moral hazard arises. The problem originated in the insurance industry, referring to the possiblity that people with insurance will change their behaviour, resulting in larger claims on the insurance company than would have been made if they had continued to behave as they did before they had insurance. This change in behaviour may, moreover, be known to the insurer, but may not be fraudulent or, at least, may not be provably fraudulent. In the context of relations between principals and agents, moral hazard refers to the possibility that, once there is a contract, the agent may behave differently from how he would have behaved had he not had the contract. It must, in addition, be difficult to determine whether his behaviour has conformed to the terms of the contract5. This arises particularly where the agent is a member of a team. Principal-agent theorists have attempted, by specifying conditions such as that the managers salary be equal to the expected value of his marginal product, to design contracts on the basis of which there will be an incentive for the manager to act in the shareholders interests. However, the importance of the team element in managerial jobs discredits the notion of a managers marginal product (Aoki, 1984, Ch. 2 and p. 50). This team element6 is also present at the production level. Doeringer and Piore (1971, p. 277) emphasised the importance of social cohesion and group pressure in the establishment of work customs. The process whereby such routines are created, and their importance in the success or otherwise of firms, are central concerns of the evolutionary theory of the firm (Section 2. 4). Principal-agent theory is more concerned with implications for shirking, that is, a reduction in effort by an agent who is part of a team. There may be a slight decline in total output as a result, but the cause will usually be unidentifiable. The shirking manager knows that his diminished effort is unobservable. Shirking is the moral hazard arising from the employment contract. What the principal can do, in the formulation of contracts, to offset shirking (and other types of management misbehaviour), is a key problem of principal-agent theory. There are a number of ways of controlling moral hazard. Rather than attempting to calculate the value of each managers marginal product, managers could each be paid a salary plus a bonus based on the performance of the company. The problem here is that if the utility of leisure is different for different managers, then again some may work more and others less at maximising the long-run value of the firm. (On the other hand, where there is a great deal of cultural homogeneity, as can be argued to be the case in Japan, this salary plus bonus system seems to be effective. ) Other examples of suggestions by principal-agent theorists for solving employment contract problems include the development of efficient ways of monitoring the performance of individual managers (or management teams), providing incentive contracts which reward agents only on the basis of results, bonding (where the agent makes a promise to pay the principal a sum of money if inappropriate behaviour by the agent is detected) and mandatory retirement payments. This last acts like a bond, in that there is a disincentive for the employee to misbehave because if he does misbehave he may be fired, and lose his retirement payment. It should be emphasised that, to the extent that managers want to keep their jobs, the three markets (for corporate control, managerial labour and the firms products) can control moral hazard. In relation to the market for corporate control, for example, Many observers have interpreted the hostile takeovers [of the 1980s] as a corrective response to managerial moral hazard: The takeovers, it is claimed, were intended to displace entrenched managers who were pursuing their own interests at the expense of the stockholders (Milgrom and Roberts, 1992, p. 182). The fact that the acquisition share prices were higher than they had been in the market prior to takeover, may be evidence of management misbehaviour or moral hazard. This would be so if the original market value of the shares had been the equivalent of the companys value (net present value of the future stream of profit that could reasonably be expected) under the original management, and the acquisition price was the companys value under the new management. It may, on the other hand, indicate an overestimation by the acquiring firm or individual of its/his capacity to improve the performance of the company. Milgrom and Roberts (1992, pp. 182-3) seem to conclude that the takeover premium was indicative of moral hazard when arguing that there is other evidence of management misbehaviour in the adoption during the 1980s by management of the poison pill defence against takeovers. The poison pill is a special security, which gives the holder the right to acquire shares at very low prices in the event of a hostile takeover. Poison pills were created by management, in some cases without shareholder approval. If, as Stiglitz (1991) suggests, the acquiring firm in takeovers generally experiences no increase in its own share values, then it is more likely that there has in fact been an overestimation by the acquiring firm of its ability to improve the performance of the target company. This is indicative, in other words, of an overestimation of the moral hazard of the managerial employment contract. The most obvious solution to the problem of conflict of interest between principal and agent is for the principal to become his own agent. Where there is team production, and the existence of a monitor can reduce shirking by enough to pay his own salary, then it may be appropriate for that monitor also to be the owner of the firm. If he is not the owner, then there could be a need to monitor the monitor, to ensure that he does not shirk. This leads to the conclusion that the existence of firms in which there is an owner and a group of people working as a team for that owner, is a consequence of the need to monitor team production, and the need for the monitor himself to be the owner with, for example, the power to fire shirkers, to pay each of the members of the team in accordance with his view of their productivity, to keep the residual and to sell the firm8. We return to the question of the basis for the existence of firms in the next section, where transaction cost theory, among other things, takes exception to principal-agent theorys conclusion about the significance of the need for monitoring. 1 This section draws in part on Milgrom and Roberts, 1992, Ch. 6. The reader is encouraged to read that chapter for more details, particularly on the relationship between moral hazard and performance incentives. For game theoretic perspectives on the relationship between principals and agents, see Gardner, 1995, Ch. 10. 2 See, for example, the article on the separation of ownership and control by Fama and Jensen, 1983. Other important articles on principal-agent theory include Mirrlees, 1976 and Fama, 1980. 3 See, for example, Maskin and Tirole, 1992, who analyse as a three-stage game the relationship between the principal and agent in which the principal has private information that directly affects the agents payoff. 4 or, to express it in terms closer to those of the theorists in this area, the problem is whether there exists any class of reward schedule for the agent (the manager) such as to yield a Pareto-efficient solution for any pair of utility functions both for the agent and the principal (Aoki, 1984, p. 49). 5 An example of moral hazard in employment contracts arises in universities, where there are two different groups of employees, those on short-term contracts, and those with tenure. Tenure is supported by many, and not only those who have tenure(!), as a feature of the independence of the academic, and the need to protect the academic against political pressure. Tenure may perform this function to some extent but it also enables those who have it, to change their behaviour and shirk various duties. The academic on short term contract, it can be argued, works hard, prepares excellent lectures, volunteers for administrative duties, does above average research and publishing. Then he obtains tenure, relaxes more, gives last years lectures, avoids administration, and does less research and publishing. In practice there is, no doubt, moral hazard in tenure, but given that the best teachers, administrators and researchers in academia have tenure, academics certainly do not always, or even usually, change their behaviour in the way predicted by moral hazard. 6 raised, as we saw in Chapter 2, by Alchian and Demsetz, 1972. 7 quoted in Aoki, 1984, p. 26. 8 For a more detailed discussion on the issue of team production and the monitor as owner, see Holmstrom and Tirole, 1989, or at a more introductory level, Douma and Schreuder, 1992, Chapter 6.

The Truth About God Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Truth About God - Essay Example Scientists have also their own understanding of God. In tandem with this assertion, the paper aims at providing diverse understanding of God by the Christians, as well as non-Christians. In addressing this, the paper will expound on what the Bible says about God, the views of renowned Ellen White, and the views of non-Christians. According to Christians, as portrayed in the Bible, there is one God. For instance, in the book of Mark 12:29, 32-34 as expounded by Clayton (3) Jesus explained on the existence of only God with one kingdom. In relation to this, Clayton (3) claims that 1 Corinthians 8:4 warns people against offering sacrifices to idols since there is only one God. According to Clayton, God is the Father of all things. This is also evidenced in 2 Corinthians 1:3 that defines God as not only the Father of Jesus Christ, but also the Father of mercies, as well as comfort (Clayton 5). Christians believe that God of Jesus Christ is the Father of glory. According to them, the same God is their God and gives unto them the spirit of wisdom. Apart from considering God as the source of the spirit of wisdom, Christians also understand that God dwells in heaven. Christians believe God has a throne that is heaven. It is from this throne that God looks at all His creation as well as supervises the activities in heaven. The position of God in heaven correlates His role in human life. He has power to control all the happenings in the whole world since there is none above Him. In relation to this, Christians believe that God is authoritative. He is the one that gave Angle Michael the authority of directing the Israelites in the wilderness (Clayton 8). Christians also believe that God uses His son and the spirit to guide them in life. In tandem with this, it is apparent that Christians know that Jesus Christ is the Son of God who intercedes for them in heaven. According to Christians, God is very caring. This is evidenced by

Reflexive Managers in Contemporary Organisations Term Paper

Reflexive Managers in Contemporary Organisations - Term Paper Example Every manager has to realize that there is dual responsibility associated with this position as the individual has to both accomplish the organizational objectives and provide guidance to the subordinates in giving their best efforts. Moreover, the managers have to perform their self-assessment to review their own set of competencies and make sure that they possess the proficiencies required for assisting the subordinates or employees in contributing effectively within the enterprises (Cunliffe, 2013). In order to provide appropriate resources to the managers, the theorists of the organizational management field have stressed the need for utilizing the reflection process within their job responsibilities. In the present era, everyone has to act as a reflexive individual who continuously and critically thinks about the way an action is taken by the person. This analysis will allow the individual to assess the act from various perspectives so that he/she can review the perception held by the person and how others will perceive it (Bradbury, 2010; Gunia et al., 2012). Also, most of the contemporary organizations are supporting the designing and implementation of the training programs for the management positions in which managers are given adequate training for becoming the reflexive practitioners or reflexive managers (Broussine & Ahmed, 2013). The overall aim of such training sessions is to develop the critical thinking and self-assessment techniques in the managers so that they can reflect upon their own course of actions and be assured that a positive, complying and appropriate perception is created in the minds of the subordinates (Bolton, 2010). Moreover, it is stated by Hibbert (2012) that reflexive manager is mandatory for the modern day organizations as the expert has to critically evaluate his/her own practices at three instances i.e. before, during and after the decision/action.